Food Safety

Children, climate, and mycotoxins: EEA report exposes Europe’s hidden risk

March 24, 2025

The European Environment Agency (EEA) report, Mycotoxins Exposure in a Changing European Climate, serves as a critical catalyst, exposing the escalating, yet under-acknowledged, mycotoxin threat in Europe, particularly to children and adolescents, exacerbated by climate change.

Building upon the EEA’s findings, this analysis combines expert toxicological insights, human biomonitoring data, and a detailed regulatory assessment to reveal the alarming extent of exposure, especially through common dietary habits and environmental pathways, highlighting critical gaps in current EU policies.

Table of Contents

1. Mycotoxins: the invisible evil

Mycotoxins are metabolic by-products of fungi – such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps – that contaminate crops during growth or post-harvest. Key mycotoxins of concern include aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), DON, fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA).

These toxins contaminate agricultural products worldwide, with significant implications for food safety and public health, as they are are linked to severe health effects, including carcinogenic, mutagenic, reprotoxic (CMR), and immunotoxic outcomes.

The EEA briefing focuses on the health impacts of deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin commonly found in wheat, maize, and barley, and explores how climate change is exacerbating exposure risks, especially for vulnerable groups like children and adolescents. DON is prevalent in temperate regions and has been extensively studied due to available human biomonitoring data from the HBM4EU initiative (see Paragraph 5).

2. Health impacts of mycotoxins

Mycotoxins pose significant health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations. Children and adolescents are at higher risk due to their higher food intake relative to body weight. Infants and toddlers are especially susceptible, as mycotoxins are found in cereal-based baby foods and other staples.

Exposure to mycotoxins like OTA and AFB1 can damage developing kidneys and livers, while ZEN, an endocrine disruptor, can cause reproductive issues. Pregnant women are also at risk, as some mycotoxins can cross the placenta and the blood-brain barrier, potentially harming foetal development.

Workers in agriculture and food processing face occupational exposure through inhalation and skin contact with contaminated dust. Acute exposure in these settings can lead to immediate health effects, while chronic exposure increases the risk of long-term conditions.

3. Human exposure to mycotoxins in Europe

Dietary intake is the primary route of mycotoxin exposure, with grains and cereals being the main sources. Studies indicate that 25% of crops exceed EU regulatory limits for mycotoxins, while contamination is detectable in 60-80% of crops. Mycotoxins are resistant to typical food preparation methods, making contamination difficult to eliminate. Inhalation and skin absorption are additional exposure routes, particularly in occupational settings.

Emerging evidence also points to mycotoxins as environmental contaminants in water systems. Agricultural runoff, wastewater, and improper disposal of contaminated products contribute to the presence of mycotoxins in surface and drinking water. Some mycotoxins, like OTA, persist in water even after treatment, raising concerns about drinking water safety.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) for DON, with chronic dietary exposure exceeding safe levels in infants, toddlers, and children. Adolescents and adults also face high exposure levels, indicating a widespread public health concern.

4. Serious risks for children: the opinion of toxicologist professor Carlo Brera

Professor Carlo Brera – formerly the Scientific Director of Italy’s National Reference Laboratory for Mycotoxins in Food and Feed, as well as the Italian national delegate to DG Sante for Agricultural Contaminants, whom we interviewed – highlights the ‘serious health risks for children, both under and over the age of 3, linked to DON exposure’. Although the toxicity of this mycotoxin is far lower than that of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, Professor Brera explains that ‘we must consider the overall exposure of children and adolescents, taking into account not just individual food items but their daily diet, which in many countries includes significant consumption of a “basket” of cereal-based foods such as pasta, bread, pizza, snacks, biscuits, breakfast cereals, and sweet baked goods’.

‘The risk of DON exposure for children and adolescents is highly critical and remains underestimated by European legislators,’ Professor Carlo Brera continues. ‘Maximum mycotoxin limits have been set without any distinction between foods intended for consumption by children over 3, adolescents, and adults. Yet there are significant differences between children, adolescents, and adults, both in the ratio of contaminant intake to body weight and in their ability to metabolise contaminants, due to children’s weaker immune defences’.

‘As an example, considering the DON’s daily toxicological threshold of 1 microgram/kg of body weight/day and calculating the average exposure of a 3-year-old child weighing around 26 kg – with an average contamination level of the cereal-based food basket at 50% of the maximum tolerable limit for individual foods (within the 200–300 µg/kg range) – the total daily consumption of the basket should be between 87 and 130 grams. Daily intake exceeding these values would expose children to an unacceptable risk’.

5. HBM4EU initiative and human biomonitoring

The HBM4EU initiative (2017-2022) provided critical insights into mycotoxin exposure across Europe. It established a Human Biomonitoring Guidance Value (HBM-GV) for DON, setting a threshold above which health effects may occur.

Monitoring revealed that 14% of adults in six European countries had detectable levels of DON, with higher exposure in Poland, Luxembourg, France, and Portugal. Notably, individuals with higher education levels tended to have lower exposure, likely due to better dietary and lifestyle choices.

6. Climate change and mycotoxin contamination

Europe is warming twice as fast as the global average, creating conditions conducive to fungal growth and mycotoxin production. Higher temperatures and humidity levels are expected to increase the prevalence of mycotoxins like AF, DON, ZEN, and OTA. Climate models predict that southern Europe will face higher contamination risks, while northern regions may also experience emerging threats.

Extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall and droughts, exacerbate plant stress, making crops more susceptible to fungal infections. Increased precipitation and flooding can also transfer mycotoxins from soil to water systems, further amplifying contamination risks. Additionally, rising insect populations may spread toxigenic moulds, increasing crop infections.

7. Economic and food security implications

Climate-induced mycotoxin contamination threatens food security and economic stability. Contaminated crops lead to lower yields, higher testing costs, and potential trade disruptions. The global impact is significant, with sub-Saharan Africa facing heightened risks due to its humid climate and existing food security challenges.

8. Preventive measures and the One Health approach

Addressing mycotoxin risks requires a One Health approach, integrating human, animal, and environmental health strategies. Key measures include:

implementing Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), such as crop rotation and adjusted harvest periods;
using biological controls, like non-toxic fungal strains, to compete with toxigenic fungi;
developing predictive models to anticipate contamination risks and guide timely interventions;
breeding fungi-resistant crops to reduce contamination risks.

Collaborative efforts among policymakers, farmers, and researchers are essential to mitigate mycotoxin risks and protect public health in a changing climate.

9. EU mycotoxin policies: progress and gap

The European Union has taken significant steps to regulate mycotoxins in food and feed through the Food Contaminants Regulation (EU) No 2023/915, which replaced the older Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. This new regulation harmonizes definitions and clarifies maximum levels (MLs) for contaminants, including mycotoxins, while keeping existing thresholds in place. However, despite these advancements, there are still critical gaps in the EU’s approach to managing mycotoxin risks.

9.1. DON, T-2, HT-2 toxins

One of the key updates in 2024 was the introduction of new MLs for deoxynivalenol (DON) under Regulation (EU) No 2024/1022. These changes focus on the parent toxin (DON) and are based on the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). However, the EU has not yet set limits for modified mycotoxins, which include metabolites and processing by-products. These modified forms pose significant health risks, but the lack of regulatory action leaves a major gap in food safety. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has emphasized the need for more data to address this issue, but progress has been slow.

For T-2 and HT-2 toxins, the EU introduced group guidance values and MLs through Regulation (EU) No 2024/1038. Member States are required to report on contamination levels and preventive measures by 2028. Similarly, stricter MLs for ergot alkaloids were postponed under Regulation (EU) No 2024/1808 due to increasing contamination linked to climate change. This delay highlights the difficulty of balancing food safety with the realities of agricultural production.

9.2. Challenges and gaps in the EU

Mycotoxins in plant-based foods, particularly aflatoxins in beverages like almond drinks, present a concern, especially for children. Despite updated EU detection methods (Regulation (EU) 2023/2782), enforcement is inconsistent, and regulatory action on emerging mycotoxins like enniatins, beauvericin, and sterigmatocystin lags behind scientific findings.

Key policy gaps remain:

the consideration of the higher exposure risk for children, due to their typical diet, as reiterated by Professor Carlo Brera;
the absence of maximum levels for modified mycotoxins, insufficient human biomonitoring (crucial for assessing exposure in vulnerable groups like infants, adolescents, and pregnant women);
the lack of stricter limits for plant-based products, and inadequate consideration of climate change’s impact.

A proactive, science-driven approach is needed to strengthen policies and research, prioritising food safety and protecting vulnerable populations.

9. Interim conclusions

Building upon the EEA’s report, this analysis underscores the urgent need for a paradigm shift in EU mycotoxin policy, prioritising children’s specific vulnerabilities and the escalating impact of climate change.

Existing regulations fail to address the critical risks posed by modified mycotoxins and dietary exposure in young populations, as highlighted by expert toxicological evaluation.

Integrating human biomonitoring and a comprehensive One Health approach, as emphasized by the EEA, is essential to safeguard public health and food security. This demands immediate, proactive interventions and policy adjustments to mitigate these escalating, climate-driven threats.

Dario Dongo

Reference

European Environment Agency (EEA). (2025). Mycotoxin exposure in a changing European climate (Briefing No. 02/2025). doi:10.2800/2076941. ISBN: 978-92-9480-706-9. https://tinyurl.com/y8bs39h6