FAO recommends that its 194 member states work on 5 fronts to reduce atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases caused by animal husbandry. (1)
Another area of focus-which itself deserves consideration, although not mentioned-is the use of algae in animal feed. To lower methane emissions from ruminants and strengthen the immune system of animals.
Demographics, economics, and meat consumption
Population growth, urbanization and widespread (albeit profoundly inequitable) improvement in the global economy have contributed to an extraordinary growth in demand for meat in recent decades. More than quadrupled, inLow-Middle Income Countries (LMICs), between 1970 and 2012. And projected to double by 2050 (2.3).
Moderate consumption of foods of animal origin is generally considered favorable for human health as part of varied and balanced diets. Because of the macro and micro nutrients they provide, and their easy assimilation (e.g., protein and amino acids, vitamin B12, calcium, iron).
Livestock supply chains, the problems to be addressed
However, the uncontrolled growth of livestock supply chains has led to a number of largely unresolved problems related to:
– land consumption. 2.5 billion hectares, or about half of the entire global agricultural area, are in fact devoted to the cultivation of feed materials (FAOSTAT 2016),
– Land robbery and deforestation. The ever-increasing demand for grazing areas and GMO soybeans for feed production is still being fulfilled, in Latin and South America especially, by land robbery(land grabbing) and devastation of primary agricultural forests, (4)
– FOOD SECURITY. The security of food supply and the universal right of access to food (the second of the Sustainable Development Goals, SDGs) are also threatened by the use of agricultural crops and commodities for feed, rather than food,
– Animal welfare, zoonotic diseases, antibiotic resistance,
– Biodiversity loss and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Problems, these, also caused to a great extent by other supply chains designed to produce food and biofuels (e.g., palm oil, GMO soybeans).
Animal husbandry and greenhouse gas emissions.
The livestock production chain is considered responsible for 14.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions derived from anthropogenic activities. About half of the emissions are methane gas (CH4), which comes mainly from the enteric fermentation of ruminants (44.1 percent in 2010, FAO 2018), as well as from undigested plant matter remaining in manure (5.6 percent in 2010, FAO 2018). The remaining half consists of nitrous oxide (N2O or nitrous oxide, the precursor of which is ammonia found in animal manure, 24 percent) and carbon dioxide (CO2, 26 percent), respectively, which are derived from forage and feed productions, organic and inorganic fertilizers used in soils, and manure management.
Fifty-five percent of the emissions are considered direct, i.e., related to biological processes (enteric fermentation of ruminants or nitrification/denitrification of manure and urine or anaerobic decomposition – CH4 and CO2) or energy use on farms – CO2. Indirect emissions, on the other hand, are worth the remaining 45 percent and come from the production of fertilizers and pesticides for crops intended to become feed, from the feed itself, from the use of manure on fields, from transport vehicles and implements, and from land-use change (i.e., deforestation for agricultural land use).
Land-gas and animal husbandry, the impact of individual supply chains
Ruminant (polygastric) animals produce greater GHG emissions than monogastric animals (e.g. poultry, pigs). A total of 5 Gt CO2 eq., more than about 60 percent of global GHG emissions in animal husbandry, are attributed to cattle supply chains. Nevertheless, FAO finds it useful to consider the intensity of emissions in relation to the protein contributed by individual supply chains.
The emissions ranking, based on the amount of ‘CO2 equivalent’ required to produce 1 kg of protein, following:
– buffalo meat, 404 kg CO2 eq., per 1 kg protein,
– beef, 295 kg CO2 eq,
– Small ruminants (sheep-goats), 201 kg,
– milk (dairy cows), 87 kg,
– pig, 55 kg,
– chicken, 35 kg,
– eggs (laying hens), 31 kg.
Land-gas and animal husbandry, geographical distribution
High-income countries and low- to middle-income countries but with high livestock density (especially cattle) have higher amounts of GHG emissions. 38.8 percent of total agricultural emissions are attributed to enteric fermentation of ruminants, with predominance in Asia (36.7 percent) and America (31.9 percent. FAOSTAT, 2017 data). India, Brazil and China are on the podium.
The efficiency of animal husbandry is of extraordinary significance. A U.S. cow, for example, produces an average of 10,000 liters of milk each year. Producing the same amount of milk in India requires the use of eight cows (which produce about 1,200 liters of milk per year), with methane emissions from enteric fermentation about 9 times higher. However, the Made in USA production exasperation (hormones, antibiotics, pesticides) should also be considered, in our opinion, in its negative effects on animal welfare, food safety and the environment. (5)
The 5 practical actions proposed by the FAO
FAO considers it possible to reduce emissions resulting from livestock farming by 30 percent, methane especially, through improved management and organization of systems. By means of synergies between different supply chains (meat, eggs, dairy products. Without neglecting by-products, e.g., leather and wool), suitable investments and involvement of farmers.
1) Increase the efficiency of production and resource utilization
Increased meat production has responded solely to increased consumer demand, without considering environmental concerns. Given the impossibility of totally eliminating greenhouse gas emissions, as they are derived from biological cycles and natural processes, it is necessary to review the management and organization of the supply chain.
Therefore, the importance of improving feed and fertilizer composition is stressed , as well as taking action on breed selection and manure management. Without altering natural biological cycles or compromising animal welfare and public health.
2) Strengthening the circular economy
Reducing food waste throughout the supply chain is essential both to conquer hunger and malnutrition and to decrease greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) no. 2 and 13, in UN Agenda 2030. And to this end, it is necessary, as noted (ISPRA, 2019), to take a systems approach.
Globally, to cite one example, the waste of 1 in 5 liters of milk produced has been calculated (FAO 2015). A circular bioeconomy model could enable the reuse and recycling of waste from agribusiness supply chains(from farm to fork) and biofuels in feed production. Thus improving nitrogen use efficiency, reducing N2O emissions, and freeing millions of hectares of agricultural land from feedstock production.
Slaughter by-products and manure can in turn be turned into biogas, reducing GHG emissions, odors, and insects. And their subsequent residues in organic fertilizer.
3) Leverage nature-based solutions to increase GHG emission offsets
Agriculture (broadly speaking) and forests have the potential to offset their own GHG emissions. But some agricultural supply chains, as mentioned, are the primary causes of deforestation. Therefore, it is urgent to stop the expansion of grazing land and feed production on forest-occupied land. (4)
We then need to improve pasture and crop management techniques for feed production. Planting trees and supporting silvopastoral activities can enable us to limit soil degradation, reduce biodiversity loss and promoteagroecology. The use of renewable energy (not only biogas, but also wind or solar energy) to conduct production facilities is also important.
4) Healthy and sustainable diets, alternative proteins.
The health of the world’s population is threatened by malnutrition, which is expressed by seemingly opposite symptoms, undernutrition and obesity. Among children under five, 1 in 5 is undernourished due to malnutrition, now exacerbated by the Covid-19 crisis. At the same time, at least 40 million children of the same age are obese or overweight.
The nutritional inputs provided by meat and animal products play a valuable role, and yet their excesses, as well as the consumption of ultra-processed foods, cause seriousNon-Communicable Diseases (NCDs), which are often chronic and incurable.
Therefore, it is necessary to promote consumption and pursue research on sustainable production of alternative protein sources. Such as legumes, essential to the nourishment of humans as well as soils(FAO 2019), algae and microalgae, fungi and microbial proteins, and insects.
5) Policies to drive change
Public intervention is essential to change farming systems. However, agricultural policies must follow an integrated (bottom-up and top-down) and participatory approach, as well as be based on sound science. FAO identifies direct payments as useful tools for incentivizing farmers to change. Instead, it expresses reservation about the carbon tax, even in the face of uncertainties in measuring emissions in individual contexts.
Measures to be taken to discourage unsustainable breeding practices may include the application of surcharges (or taxes) on the resulting commodities. Taking into account the various factors on which it is possible and therefore necessary to act, to improve environmental performance. The adoption of standards and certifications should also be promoted to promote consumer awareness and stimulate sustainable production (SDG 12, Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns).
The impact of climate change on animal husbandry
Animal husbandry is in turn threatened by the climate emergency. The increased amount of CO2 in the atmosphere-in causing rising temperatures, with unstable rainfall and natural disasters-is also harmful to animals, pastures and feed crops.
High temperatures and sporadic rainfall negatively affect crop yields and plant metabolism, which tend to lignify defensively. This reduces the quality and yield of fodder and feed crops. And pathogenic vectors responsible for zoonoses tend to survive even in the winter months.
Climate emergency, impact on people’s lives
Drought and desertification in some sub-Saharan African states have resulted in the loss of 20-60% of cattle herds over the past three decades. And the stress brought by heat can adversely affect milk production. (6)
These changes further exacerbate the food security problem, forcing populations to change land use, increasing agricultural area, and migrate. As well as causing conflicts over resources, water in particular.
Sustainable Development Goals and animal husbandry
Animal husbandry-like the food chain, as a whole-must be transformed from a cause of the ecological crisis to part of the solution. Without neglecting the livelihood needs of populations, considering that livestock supply chains employ about 1.3 billion people worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2014). (7)
‘It is important to note that livestock are indispensable for the achievement of the SDGs, partly because they play an essential role in the lives of the poor.’ (1)
FAO studies thus identify the potential of livestock activities as a possible driver for achieving the 17Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in UN Agenda 2030.
FAO, tentative conclusions
A 30 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in animal husbandry is an achievable goal, according to FAO. Its achievement, however, postulates a change, globally, in all supply chains. Taking into account their diversity and complexity, as well as their respective socio-cultural contexts and traditions. Generally speaking, at the operational level, some areas of focus are identified:
– feed quality. The use of highly digestible selected materials (such as those with low protein content), can reduce enteric fermentation emissions from ruminants. To this end, it is also useful to work on forage maturation and the refinement of haying and ensiling processes,
– Management of land dedicated to grazing. Agroforestry systems provide significant benefits in terms of atmospheric CO2 sequestration, biodiversity recovery, increased production yields and animal welfare,
– selection of the most productive breeds and control over animal fertility are also identified as necessary steps for controlling GHG emissions,
– appropriate wastewater management to reduce the concentration of nitrogen in manure, promoting proper composting, solid-liquid separation techniques and their use as organic fertilizer,
The organic system, in agriculture and animal husbandry, undoubtedly provides a better balance between emissions and carbon sequestration, with a net reduction in indirect emissions. Under the banner of respect for human and animal health, animal welfare, and environmental protection. In two words, One Health.
The role of algae in animal husbandry
One great opportunity that deserves to be added to the FAO recommendations concerns the use of algae in animal husbandry. The addition of minimal shares of certain algae in feed, as noted above, can enable extraordinary reductions in ruminant methane emissions (up to 99 percent).
Algae and microalgae are also the subject of successful experiments in Italian farms and scientific studies to strengthen the immune system of animals. With the goal of promoting animal welfare by reducing the use of antibiotics and other veterinary drugs. Insights to follow.
Dario Dongo and Marina De Nobili
Notes
(1) FAO (2019). Five practical actions toward low-carbon livestock. FAO, Rome. ISBN: 978-92-5-131985-7. http://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/CA7089EN/
(2) See also the UN report The World in 2050 (TWI 2050).
(3) Global agricultural production in turn tripled, between 1960 and 2015 (UNEP, 2020). V. https://www.greatitalianfoodtrade.it/mercati/agricoltura-industriale-i-10-punti-critici-da-affrontare-rapporto-unep
(4) Of note in this regard is the campaign Buycott! Palm oil, GMO soy, and American meats., promoted by Égalité together with GIFT(Great Italian Food Trade). V. https://www. egalite.org/buycott-petizione/, https://www.greatitalianfoodtrade.it/consum-attori/buycott-soia-ogm-palma-e-carni-americane-la-petizione
(5) Dario Dongo. Pesticides, antibiotics and hormones in US milk, the study. Urgent need for label of origin. GIFT (Great Italian Food Trade). 11.8.19, https://www.greatitalianfoodtrade.it/consum-attori/pesticidi-antibiotici-e-ormoni-nel-latte-usa-lo-studio-urge-l-etichetta-di-origine
(6) Therefore, too, work is being done in the Camel Milk research project to develop the camel milk supply chain in the Mediterranean. As part of the PRIMA(Partnership for Research and Innovation in the Mediterranean Area) project in Horizon 2020.
(7) Animal husbandry accounts for about 40 percent of agricultural revenues in high-income countries, 20 percent in low- to middle-income countries (FAOSTAT, 2014)
Dario Dongo, lawyer and journalist, PhD in international food law, founder of WIISE (FARE - GIFT - Food Times) and Égalité.
Graduated in law in Trento, she follows a master's degree in food law at Roma Tre. She is passionate about food and wine, she is between culture and tradition.
